GOV 001 — Elements of Government
Q1(a). What is a State? [3 Marks]
Q1(b). Explain any three theories of the State. [12 Marks]
Q2(a). Explain the concept of Confederalism. [3 Marks]
Q2(b). Discuss any four features of a Confederal State. [12 Marks]
GOV 002 — Fundamentals of Government
Q3(a). What is political ideology? [3 Marks]
Q3(b). Explain any four roles of political ideology in a political system. [12 Marks]
Q4(a). Briefly explain the origin of ECOWAS. [3 Marks]
Q4(b). Discuss any four problems confronting ECOWAS as a sub-regional organisation. [12 Marks]
GOV 003 — Nigerian Government and Politics
Q5(a). What is foreign policy? [3 Marks]
Q5(b). Explain four determinants of Nigeria’s foreign policy. [12 Marks]
Q6. Discuss any five decisions reached at the 1957 London Constitutional Conference, pointing out the significance of each. [15 Marks]
GOV 004 — African Government and Politics
Q7(a). What is Colonialism? [3 Marks]
Q7(b). List and explain four reasons why Europeans invaded Africa. [12 Marks]
Q8(a). Explain any three principles of the 1884–1885 Berlin Conference. [9 Marks]
Q8(b). Discuss two significances of the Berlin Conference. [6 Marks]
COMPLETE ANSWERS
GOV 001 — Elements of Government
Q1(a) — What is a State?
A state is a politically organised community of people occupying a definite geographical territory, governed by a sovereign authority that makes and enforces laws, maintains order, and conducts relations with other states. The four essential elements of a state are population, territory, government, and sovereignty.
Q1(b) — Three Theories of the State
i. The Divine Right Theory
This is one of the oldest theories of the origin of the state. It holds that the state was created by God and that rulers derive their authority directly from divine will. Kings and monarchs were therefore regarded as God’s representatives on earth, and obedience to them was considered a religious obligation. To question or disobey a ruler was tantamount to questioning God. This theory was widely used to justify absolute monarchy in medieval Europe.
ii. The Social Contract Theory
This theory was advanced by philosophers Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, each with distinct variations. The common argument is that the state emerged from a voluntary agreement — a “social contract” — among individuals who lived in a pre-political “state of nature.” To escape the insecurity, conflict, and hardship of that natural condition, people surrendered some or all of their freedoms to a sovereign authority in exchange for protection, order, and justice. For Hobbes, the contract produced an all-powerful sovereign; for Locke, government remained limited and accountable to the people; for Rousseau, the contract expressed the “general will” of the community.
iii. The Force Theory
The force theory argues that the state originated through conquest and coercion — that a stronger group or individual overpowered weaker groups, imposed its will on them, and established a system of control that eventually became institutionalised as government. Proponents argue that most historical states were founded through war, conquest, or domination rather than voluntary agreement. The conquered peoples eventually accepted the authority of their rulers, transforming raw power into legitimate political authority over time.
Q2(a) — The Concept of Confederalism
Confederalism is a system of political organisation in which two or more sovereign and independent states voluntarily come together to form a loose union, delegating only limited and specific powers — such as defence, foreign affairs, or trade — to a weak central authority, while each member state retains its full sovereignty, independence, and the right to withdraw from the union. The United States under the Articles of Confederation (1781–1789) is a classic historical example.
Q2(b) — Four Features of a Confederal State
i. Retention of Sovereignty by Member States
In a confederation, each constituent state remains fully sovereign. Unlike in a federation where sovereignty is shared, member states in a confederation retain supreme authority over their own affairs and merely delegate specific, limited powers to the central body. No member state is subordinate to the central authority.
ii. Weak Central Government
The central authority in a confederation is deliberately weak. It can only act in the areas specifically delegated to it by the member states and has no direct authority over the citizens of those states. It typically cannot levy taxes directly or enforce its decisions without the cooperation of member governments.
iii. Voluntary Association and Right of Secession
Membership in a confederation is entirely voluntary. States freely choose to join and retain the legal right to withdraw from the union at will. There is no compulsion binding any state to remain part of the confederation indefinitely, which distinguishes it fundamentally from a federation.
iv. Decentralisation of Governance
The overwhelming bulk of governmental functions — lawmaking, taxation, education, policing, and social services — remain at the level of the individual member states. The central body handles only those specific matters assigned to it, making confederation the most decentralised form of multi-state political organisation.
GOV 002 — Fundamentals of Government
Q3(a) — Political Ideology
A political ideology is a coherent and systematic set of beliefs, values, ideas, and principles that describes how society is organised, explains the existing political and economic order, and prescribes how society ought to be structured and governed. It serves as a guide for political action, providing a framework within which political parties, governments, and citizens make decisions about power, justice, equality, and freedom. Examples include liberalism, socialism, conservatism, and Marxism.
Q3(b) — Four Roles of Political Ideology in a Political System
i. Guides Policy Formulation
Political ideology provides the philosophical framework within which governments and political parties develop their policies. A socialist government, for instance, will prioritise public ownership and welfare spending, while a capitalist-oriented government will favour privatisation and free markets. Ideology therefore gives direction and coherence to governance.
ii. Legitimises Government Authority
Ideology justifies the existence, structure, and actions of a government in the eyes of its citizens. By articulating values that resonate with the population — such as democracy, equality, or national greatness — a regime uses ideology to generate popular consent and acceptance, thereby making its rule appear natural and just rather than arbitrary.
iii. Shapes Political Behaviour and Participation
Ideology influences how citizens vote, which parties they support, how they engage in political discourse, and whether they participate in activism or civic life. Strong ideological commitments can mobilise mass political movements, as seen in the spread of nationalism, socialism, and religious political movements across history.
iv. Promotes National Unity and Social Cohesion
A shared political ideology can serve as a unifying force, bringing together diverse groups within a society around common values, goals, and a national vision. In newly independent states like Nigeria, nationalist ideology played a critical role in forging a sense of common identity and purpose across ethnic and religious divides.
Q4(a) — Origin of ECOWAS
The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was established on 28 May 1975 through the Treaty of Lagos, signed by fifteen West African nations. Its formation was largely driven by the vision of General Yakubu Gowon of Nigeria and President Gnassingbé Eyadéma of Togo, who recognised the need for regional economic integration to accelerate development, promote trade, and reduce dependence on former colonial powers. The organisation aimed to create a common market, facilitate the free movement of people and goods, and foster cooperation among member states.
Q4(b) — Four Problems Confronting ECOWAS
i. Political Instability and Military Coups
Many ECOWAS member states have experienced recurring military coups, civil wars, and political crises — as seen in Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. This chronic instability disrupts economic activity, diverts national resources to security, and makes it extremely difficult to implement long-term regional integration programmes.
ii. Language and Cultural Barriers
West Africa is linguistically divided along former colonial lines — Anglophone, Francophone, and Lusophone countries co-exist within ECOWAS. These language differences create significant communication barriers, hinder intra-regional business and diplomacy, and generate suspicions that undermine genuine cooperation and integration.
iii. Economic Disparities Among Member States
There are vast differences in the economic sizes, development levels, and resources of ECOWAS member states. Nigeria alone accounts for the bulk of the region’s GDP. These inequalities create tensions over burden-sharing, make a common currency difficult to achieve, and mean that weaker economies fear domination by stronger ones.
iv. Poor Infrastructure and Trade Barriers
Inadequate road, rail, port, and telecommunications infrastructure across the region severely limits intra-regional trade and movement. Combined with multiple checkpoints, non-tariff barriers, and customs inefficiencies along borders, poor infrastructure makes it far more difficult and expensive for goods and people to move freely within the ECOWAS zone than the founding treaty envisioned.
GOV 003 — Nigerian Government and Politics
Q5(a) — Foreign Policy
Foreign policy refers to the set of strategies, objectives, principles, and decisions that guide a sovereign state in its interactions and relations with other states and international organisations. It is designed to protect and advance the state’s national interests — including its security, economic prosperity, political influence, and ideological values — in the international arena. Nigeria’s foreign policy has historically been anchored on African-centred principles and the concept of Nigeria as the “Giant of Africa.”
Q5(b) — Four Determinants of Nigeria’s Foreign Policy
i. National Interest
The most fundamental determinant of any state’s foreign policy is the pursuit of its national interest — the security, economic wellbeing, and political survival of the nation. Nigeria’s foreign policy decisions, from ECOMOG interventions to oil diplomacy, have been primarily driven by what the government perceives as beneficial to Nigeria’s people, sovereignty, and regional influence.
ii. Geographical Location and Regional Leadership
Nigeria’s position as the largest country in West Africa — by both population and economy — shapes its role and responsibilities in regional affairs. Its geography makes it a natural hub for West African trade and diplomacy, and successive Nigerian governments have used this position to assert leadership within ECOWAS and the African Union, viewing regional stability as inseparable from Nigeria’s own security.
iii. Economic Considerations
Nigeria’s dependence on oil revenues, its need for foreign investment and technology, and its desire to diversify and develop its economy are major drivers of foreign policy. Economic diplomacy — the pursuit of trade agreements, investment partnerships, and development aid — has been a consistent strand of Nigeria’s external relations, particularly as the country has sought to reduce its vulnerability to oil price fluctuations.
iv. Historical Experience and Colonial Legacy
Nigeria’s colonial history under Britain and its experience of the struggle for independence have profoundly shaped its foreign policy orientation. The country has consistently championed the decolonisation of Africa, the liberation of peoples under apartheid and white minority rule (particularly in South Africa and Zimbabwe), and the principle of non-interference in the internal affairs of sovereign states — all positions rooted in its own historical experience of foreign domination.
Q6 — Five Decisions of the 1957 London Constitutional Conference and Their Significance
The 1957 London Constitutional Conference was a crucial milestone on Nigeria’s road to independence. The following were among its most important decisions:
i. The Grant of Self-Government to the Eastern and Western Regions (1957)
The conference agreed that the Eastern and Western regions would be granted self-government in 1957, while the Northern Region would receive self-government in 1959. This was a landmark step because it gave Nigerian regional leaders real executive authority over their regions for the first time, providing practical experience of self-governance ahead of full independence.
ii. Creation of the Office of Prime Minister
The conference agreed to the introduction of the position of Prime Minister at the federal level. This was significant because it established the framework for responsible parliamentary government in Nigeria, with the Prime Minister emerging from the majority party in the federal legislature — a model closely following the Westminster system that Nigeria would operate at independence.
iii. Establishment of a Federal Legislature with Increased Nigerian Representation
The conference strengthened the federal legislature and increased the representation of Nigerians within it. This was significant in shifting real legislative power progressively from colonial officials to elected Nigerian representatives, moving the country closer to genuine democratic self-governance.
iv. Agreement on a Federal Structure for an Independent Nigeria
The conference confirmed that independent Nigeria would operate as a federation, with powers distributed between the federal government and the three regional governments. This was constitutionally significant because it locked in the federal structure that has defined Nigerian governance ever since, balancing the interests of the diverse regional and ethnic groups.
v. Setting of 1960 as the Target Date for Full Independence
While not formally announced at the 1957 conference itself, the discussions and agreements reached there effectively set the political momentum and constitutional framework that led to the formal announcement of 1960 as the independence date. This galvanised Nigerian nationalist leaders and gave the independence movement a concrete timeline, focusing constitutional negotiations and political mobilisation toward that goal.
GOV 004 — African Government and Politics
Q7(a) — Colonialism
Colonialism is the policy and practice by which a powerful state extends its authority over a weaker territory, establishing direct political control, exploiting its human and natural resources, and imposing its own economic, cultural, legal, and administrative systems upon the colonised population. In the African context, colonialism refers primarily to the European conquest and domination of African territories from the late 19th century through the mid-20th century.
Q7(b) — Four Reasons Why Europeans Invaded Africa
i. Economic Exploitation
The Industrial Revolution in Europe created an insatiable demand for raw materials — cotton, rubber, minerals, palm oil, and groundnuts — as well as new markets for manufactured goods. Africa, with its vast and largely untapped natural resources, was seen as the ideal source of these inputs and as a captive market for European products. Economic gain was the single most powerful motive driving the scramble for Africa.
ii. Political Rivalry and Imperial Prestige
European nations — particularly Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, and Portugal — competed intensely with one another for global power and prestige. Acquiring colonial territories in Africa became a measure of national greatness and strategic advantage. Controlling African lands meant controlling trade routes, military bases, and geopolitical influence, giving European powers leverage over their rivals.
iii. Religious and Civilisational Motives
Many Europeans genuinely believed they had a moral and religious duty to spread Christianity and what they called “Western civilisation” to Africa. Missionaries preceded and often facilitated colonial conquest, establishing schools, churches, and hospitals. This ideology — encapsulated in Rudyard Kipling’s phrase “the white man’s burden” — provided a moral justification for conquest, framing colonialism as a humanitarian mission rather than exploitation.
iv. Strategic and Military Considerations
Controlling key African territories gave European powers command over vital sea lanes, especially around the Cape of Good Hope and the Suez Canal region. Establishing military bases and strategic outposts across Africa allowed colonial powers to project naval and military strength globally, protect their shipping routes, and counter the ambitions of rival European nations.
Q8(a) — Three Principles of the 1884–1885 Berlin Conference
The Berlin Conference, convened by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, brought together fourteen European powers to regulate the colonisation and trade of Africa. Its key principles included:
i. The Principle of Effective Occupation
This was the most consequential principle established at Berlin. It held that a European power could only claim sovereignty over an African territory if it actually physically occupied that territory — meaning it had established an administrative presence, signed treaties with local rulers, or demonstrated real control on the ground. Merely discovering or mapping a territory was no longer sufficient to claim it. This principle accelerated the physical conquest of Africa, as powers rushed to establish actual presence.
ii. The Notification Principle
European powers were required to notify other signatory powers when they formally annexed new African territories. This procedure was designed to prevent conflicts between European nations arising from overlapping territorial claims by ensuring that all parties were kept informed of each other’s colonial acquisitions, thereby reducing the risk of armed confrontations between colonising powers.
iii. Freedom of Navigation on the Congo and Niger Rivers
The conference declared that the Congo and Niger rivers — two of Africa’s most strategically and commercially important waterways — would be open to free navigation by vessels of all nations. This ensured that no single power could monopolise trade along these critical rivers, and it facilitated deeper European commercial and administrative penetration into the African interior.
Q8(b) — Two Significances of the Berlin Conference
i. The Formalisation and Acceleration of the Partition of Africa
The Berlin Conference provided the legal and diplomatic framework for the systematic division of Africa among European powers. By establishing agreed-upon rules for claiming territory, it transformed what had been a largely informal and competitive scramble into an organised partition. Within two decades of the conference, virtually the entire African continent had been carved up and placed under European colonial rule — with devastating and long-lasting consequences for African peoples, cultures, and political development.
ii. The Exclusion of Africans and the Imposition of Artificial Boundaries
One of the most historically significant and damaging outcomes of the Berlin Conference was that it was conducted entirely without the participation, knowledge, or consent of any African peoples or leaders. The boundaries drawn across the continent were based entirely on European strategic and diplomatic convenience, cutting across existing ethnic nations, kingdoms, linguistic groups, and trade networks. These artificial borders created the multi-ethnic, politically fragmented states that independent African nations inherited, and they remain a root cause of ethnic conflict, political instability, and governance challenges across Africa to this day.