1. Define politics and discuss the relevance of the Scientific Approach to the study of politics.
2. Identify any four (4) features of a state and discuss how important each of them is to its existence.
3. Discuss any four (4) arguments of the Underdevelopment Theory in the study of Third World societies.
4. With relevant examples, write short notes on any two of the following:
- i. Constitutionalism
- ii. Separation of Powers
- iii. Checks and Balances
5. Explain any four (4) forms of citizenship known to you.
6. Discuss any two (2) major achievements and challenges of the African Union since its inception.
7. Define terrorism and discuss any three (3) of its impacts on the Nigerian society.
# COMPLETE SOLUTIONS
## QUESTION 1
### Define Politics and Discuss the Relevance of the Scientific Approach to the Study of Politics
### Definition of Politics
Politics can be defined in several ways:
- **Harold Lasswell** defined politics as "who gets what, when and how" — emphasizing the allocation of scarce resources and values in society.
- **David Easton** defined it as "the authoritative allocation of values for a society."
- **Aristotle** called it "the master science" — the activity through which people make, preserve, and amend the general rules under which they live.
In general, **politics** refers to the activities, processes, and institutions through which people make collective decisions, acquire and exercise power, and manage conflicts in an organized society. It involves the struggle for power, governance, policy-making, and the management of public affairs.
---
### The Scientific Approach to the Study of Politics
The **scientific approach** (also called the empirical or behavioural approach) involves applying the methods of natural sciences to the study of political phenomena. It emphasizes:
- **Observation** of political behaviour and events
- **Data collection** through systematic research
- **Hypothesis formulation and testing**
- **Objectivity and value-free analysis**
- **Generalization and prediction** based on evidence
---
### Relevance of the Scientific Approach to the Study of Politics
1. **Objectivity:** The scientific approach encourages scholars to study politics without personal bias or subjective opinions, ensuring that conclusions are based on verifiable evidence rather than emotions or ideology.
2. **Systematic Analysis:** It provides a structured framework for analyzing political phenomena — elections, voting behavior, government policies — in an organized and methodical way.
3. **Predictability:** By identifying patterns and regularities in political behavior, the scientific approach allows political scientists to make **predictions** about future political events such as election outcomes or policy impacts.
4. **Hypothesis Testing:** Political theories and assumptions can be tested against real-world data, allowing scholars to confirm, refute, or refine existing knowledge.
5. **Comparative Studies:** The scientific method enables comparison of political systems, institutions, and behaviors across different countries, helping identify universal principles of governance.
6. **Policy Formulation:** Governments and policymakers use scientifically gathered political data to design effective public policies and governance strategies.
7. **Credibility:** The use of scientific methods gives political science academic credibility and legitimacy as a discipline, placing it alongside other recognized social sciences.
8. **Problem Solving:** It helps identify the root causes of political problems such as corruption, instability, and underdevelopment, and proposes evidence-based solutions.
---
## QUESTION 2
### Four Features of a State and Their Importance to Its Existence
A **state** is a politically organized body of people occupying a definite territory, with a government possessing sovereignty and the capacity to enter into relations with other states.
---
### Feature 1: Population
A state must have a **permanent human population**. There is no fixed minimum number, but there must be people living within its borders.
**Importance:**
- Population provides the **human resource** for governance, labor, defense, and economic development.
- The people are both the **subjects and beneficiaries** of state authority.
- Without a population, there is no one to govern, tax, or protect — the state cannot function.
---
### Feature 2: Territory
A state must have a **defined and recognized geographical area** — including land, airspace, and territorial waters.
**Importance:**
- Territory defines the **physical boundaries** within which the government exercises authority.
- It is the basis for **resource ownership** (minerals, forests, water).
- Without territory, the state has no physical space to exist, no land to defend, and no borders to protect sovereignty.
---
### Feature 3: Government
A state must have a **legitimate governing authority** — institutions and structures through which laws are made, enforced, and adjudicated.
**Importance:**
- Government maintains **law and order**, protects citizens, and provides public services.
- It is the instrument through which the **will of the state** is expressed and implemented.
- Without government, there would be **anarchy** — no authority to resolve conflicts or organize society.
---
### Feature 4: Sovereignty
This is the **supreme, absolute, and unlimited power** of a state to govern itself internally and to act independently in its external relations, free from outside control.
**Importance:**
- Sovereignty is the **most essential** feature — it distinguishes a state from other organizations.
- **Internal sovereignty** ensures the government's authority is supreme over all people and groups within its territory.
- **External sovereignty** guarantees the state's independence from foreign interference and its right to enter international agreements.
- Without sovereignty, a territory is merely a **colony or dependency**, not a true state.
---
## QUESTION 3
### Four Arguments of the Underdevelopment Theory in the Study of Third World Societies
The **Underdevelopment Theory** (also called **Dependency Theory**) was developed by scholars such as **Andre Gunder Frank**, **Walter Rodney**, and **Raul Prebisch**. It argues that the poverty and backwardness of Third World (developing) nations is not accidental but is a direct result of their historical and ongoing exploitation by wealthy developed nations.
---
### Argument 1: Historical Exploitation through Colonialism
Underdevelopment theorists argue that **colonialism** systematically drained African, Asian, and Latin American societies of their human and natural resources. European powers extracted raw materials, enslaved populations, and destroyed existing industries. Walter Rodney in *How Europe Underdeveloped Africa* argued that Africa's poverty is a direct consequence of European colonization — Europe developed **at the expense** of Africa, not independently of it.
---
### Argument 2: Unequal Trade Relations (Dependency)
Third World countries are locked into an **unequal international economic system** where they export cheap **raw materials** (cocoa, oil, cotton) and import expensive **manufactured goods** from developed nations. This terms-of-trade inequality means developing nations always earn less than they spend, creating a **permanent trade deficit** and economic dependency on the industrialized North.
---
### Argument 3: The Metropolis-Satellite Structure
Andre Gunder Frank argued that the global capitalist system is structured as a **metropolis (core) — satellite (periphery)** relationship. Developed nations (metropolis) extract economic surplus from developing nations (satellites). This surplus flows from poor countries to rich ones, perpetuating wealth in the core and poverty in the periphery. Third World societies remain poor because their resources continuously enrich developed nations.
---
### Argument 4: Internal Collaboration (Comprador Class)
Underdevelopment theorists argue that a **local elite class** (comprador bourgeoisie) in Third World countries actively collaborates with foreign capitalists to maintain exploitative structures in exchange for personal wealth and power. This class — politicians, businessmen, military rulers — prioritizes **foreign interests over national development**, ensuring that underdevelopment is maintained internally even after formal independence.
---
## QUESTION 4
### Short Notes on Any Two — Constitutionalism, Separation of Powers, Checks and Balances
### (i) Constitutionalism
**Constitutionalism** is the doctrine that **government authority must be derived from, defined by, and limited by a constitution** — a supreme law that outlines the powers, structures, and limitations of government and guarantees the rights of citizens.
**Key Features:**
- Government power is **not absolute** — it must be exercised within constitutional limits.
- Citizens' **fundamental rights** are protected from government abuse.
- There is **rule of law** — no one, including the government, is above the law.
- Regular, **free and fair elections** are held as mandated by the constitution.
- An **independent judiciary** interprets and enforces the constitution.
**Examples:**
- The **Nigerian Constitution of 1999 (as amended)** limits government powers, guarantees fundamental rights (Chapter IV), and provides for independent institutions.
- The **United States Constitution** is one of the oldest examples of constitutionalism, limiting federal power and protecting individual rights through its Bill of Rights.
**Importance:**
Constitutionalism prevents **dictatorship and tyranny**, ensures **accountability**, and protects the **liberty and dignity** of citizens. It makes government predictable, legitimate, and responsible.
---
### (ii) Separation of Powers
**Separation of Powers** is a principle of government in which the three major functions of government — **legislative, executive, and judicial** — are divided among three distinct, independent, and co-equal branches, each with separate personnel and powers, so that no single person or body controls all governmental functions.
**Origin:** Associated with French philosopher **Baron de Montesquieu** (*The Spirit of the Laws*, 1748).
**The Three Arms:**
- **Legislature:** Makes laws (e.g., National Assembly in Nigeria, Congress in USA).
- **Executive:** Implements and enforces laws (e.g., President, Cabinet).
- **Judiciary:** Interprets laws and resolves disputes (e.g., Supreme Court).
**Examples:**
- In the **USA**, the President cannot make laws (Congress does), Congress cannot judge cases (courts do), and courts cannot execute policy (the President does).
- Nigeria's **1999 Constitution** establishes the three arms separately under Chapters V, VI, and VII.
**Importance:**
- Prevents **concentration of power** in one person or body.
- Reduces **abuse of power** and tyranny.
- Promotes **efficiency** through specialization.
- Protects **individual freedoms** by ensuring no branch becomes all-powerful.
---
### (iii) Checks and Balances
**Checks and Balances** is a system in which **each branch of government has powers to monitor, restrain, and limit the other branches**, ensuring that no single branch becomes too powerful or acts beyond its constitutional authority. It is the practical mechanism that makes separation of powers effective.
**Examples of Checks and Balances:**
| Branch | Checks On |
|---|---|
| Legislature | Can override presidential veto; approves appointments; impeaches President |
| Executive | President can veto legislation; appoints judges |
| Judiciary | Can declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional (judicial review) |
**Nigerian Examples:**
- The **National Assembly** can **impeach** the President (legislative check on executive).
- The **President** can **veto** bills passed by the National Assembly (executive check on legislature).
- The **Supreme Court** can declare any law or government action **unconstitutional** (judicial check on both).
**Importance:**
- Prevents **dictatorship** and **legislative supremacy**.
- Ensures **accountability** among the three arms.
- Maintains **constitutional balance** and democratic governance.
- Protects citizens from **arbitrary use of power**.
---
## QUESTION 5
### Four Forms of Citizenship
**Citizenship** is a legal relationship between an individual and a state, in which the individual owes allegiance to the state and in return enjoys the rights, privileges, and protection of that state.
---
### Form 1: Citizenship by Birth (Jus Soli)
A person automatically becomes a citizen of a country by virtue of being **born within the territorial boundaries** of that country, regardless of the parents' nationality. Example: Anyone born on Nigerian soil may claim Nigerian citizenship under certain conditions. The USA broadly applies *jus soli*.
---
### Form 2: Citizenship by Descent (Jus Sanguinis)
A person acquires citizenship because **one or both parents are citizens** of that country, regardless of where the child is born. The child inherits citizenship through **blood relation**. Example: A child born abroad to Nigerian parents can claim Nigerian citizenship by descent (Section 26, 1999 Constitution).
---
### Form 3: Citizenship by Naturalization
This is the process by which a **foreigner voluntarily acquires the citizenship** of another country after fulfilling certain legal requirements, such as:
- Residing in the country for a stipulated number of years
- Renouncing former citizenship
- Demonstrating knowledge of the country's language, laws, and customs
- Taking an **oath of allegiance**
Example: A British national who has lived in Nigeria for many years may apply for Nigerian citizenship through naturalization.
---
### Form 4: Citizenship by Registration
This involves **formal registration** with the relevant government authority to acquire citizenship. It is usually available to:
- **Foreign women** who marry citizens of that country
- **Children of naturalized citizens**
- **Commonwealth citizens** resident in a country
Example: A foreign woman who marries a Nigerian man may register to become a Nigerian citizen (Section 26, 1999 Constitution of Nigeria).
---
## QUESTION 6
### Two Major Achievements and Challenges of the African Union Since Its Inception
The **African Union (AU)** was established on **9th July 2002** in Durban, South Africa, replacing the **Organisation of African Unity (OAU)**. Its objectives include promoting unity, peace, democracy, human rights, and economic development across Africa.
---
### ACHIEVEMENTS
#### Achievement 1: Conflict Resolution and Peacekeeping
The AU has made significant strides in **mediating conflicts and deploying peacekeeping missions** across Africa:
- The **African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM)**, launched in 2007, successfully degraded Al-Shabaab's control and helped restore relative stability in Somalia.
- The AU intervened in **Burundi, Darfur (Sudan), Mali, and the Central African Republic**, preventing further loss of life.
- The **Peace and Security Council (PSC)**, established in 2004, serves as a standing mechanism for conflict prevention, management, and resolution.
#### Achievement 2: Establishment of Continental Integration Frameworks
- The AU launched the **African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA)** in 2021 — the world's largest free trade area by number of countries — aimed at boosting intra-African trade, industrialization, and economic integration.
- The **Agenda 2063** framework provides a 50-year blueprint for transforming Africa into a prosperous, peaceful, and integrated continent.
- The **New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD)** promotes socioeconomic development and good governance.
---
### CHALLENGES
#### Challenge 1: Funding and Financial Dependence
The AU remains **heavily dependent on external donors** (the EU, USA, China) for up to 60–70% of its budget, particularly for peacekeeping operations. This undermines the organization's **independence and sovereignty** in decision-making. Many member states fail to pay their **annual financial contributions** (assessed contributions) on time, creating chronic budget shortfalls.
#### Challenge 2: Non-Implementation of Decisions and Weak Enforcement Powers
The AU lacks **binding enforcement powers** over member states. Decisions, treaties, and resolutions are frequently **ignored or poorly implemented** by member governments. The principle of **non-interference in internal affairs** (inherited from the OAU) has often prevented the AU from acting decisively against member states that violate democratic norms, human rights, or AU protocols. This was evident in the AU's slow response to **military coups** in Mali, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Gabon (2021–2023).
---
---
## QUESTION 7
### Define Terrorism and Discuss Three (3) of Its Impacts on Nigerian Society
### Definition of Terrorism
**Terrorism** is the **systematic use of violence, intimidation, and fear** against civilian populations or governments by individuals or groups to achieve **political, religious, ideological, or social objectives**. It involves deliberate attacks on non-combatants intended to coerce governments or societies into meeting certain demands or accepting certain ideologies.
In Nigeria, terrorism is defined under the **Terrorism (Prevention) Act 2011 (as amended 2013)** as acts intended to intimidate the population, destabilize the government, or compel any action through violence or threats.
**Examples in Nigeria:** Boko Haram insurgency (North-East), banditry (North-West), ISWAP, Ansaru, and separatist agitations in some regions.
---
### Impact 1: Loss of Lives and Humanitarian Crisis
Terrorism has caused **massive loss of human lives** in Nigeria. The Boko Haram insurgency alone has killed an estimated **over 350,000 people** (directly and indirectly) since 2009 and displaced over **2 million people** in the Lake Chad Basin region. Communities in Borno, Yobe, and Adamawa states have been repeatedly attacked, with entire villages destroyed. This has created a **massive humanitarian crisis**, with millions in internally displaced persons (IDP) camps facing food insecurity, disease, and poverty.
---
### Impact 2: Economic Underdevelopment and Destruction
Terrorism has severely damaged **Nigeria's economy**, particularly in affected regions:
- **Agricultural activities** have collapsed in the North-East as farmers abandon their lands out of fear, contributing to **food insecurity** and rising food prices nationwide.
- **Foreign direct investment (FDI)** has declined as investors avoid Nigeria due to security concerns.
- **Infrastructure** — schools, hospitals, markets, bridges — has been destroyed by terrorist attacks, setting back decades of development.
- The government spends enormous resources on **security and military operations**, diverting funds from education, health, and infrastructure.
- **Tourism and trade** in affected regions have been completely paralyzed.
---
### Impact 3: Erosion of Social Cohesion and Education
Terrorism has deeply **fragmented Nigerian society** along religious, ethnic, and regional lines:
- Boko Haram's ideology of rejecting Western education led to the **destruction of over 900 schools** and the abduction of thousands of schoolchildren, including the famous **Chibok Girls kidnapping (2014)** — denying an entire generation access to education.
- Communities have become deeply **distrustful** of one another, with heightened religious tensions between Christians and Muslims.
- The **mass displacement** of populations has broken up communities, destroyed cultural ties, and created social dislocation.
- Nigeria's **national unity and identity** have been severely strained, with some regions feeling marginalized and abandoned by the federal government.