**Q1.** List and explain any five basic functions performed by a modern government.
**Q2.** Identify and explain five basic features of the Arthur Richards Constitution of 1946.
**Q3.** What are the main objectives of Nigeria's foreign policy? Suggest four ways through which the objectives can be realized.
**Q4.** What is a political party? Explain any five functions of a political party.
**Q5.** Explain the differences between constitution and constitutionalism.
**Q6.** Outline and explain five basic functions of the executive arm of government.
**Q7.** Identify and explain the reasons for the introduction of indirect rule in Nigeria by the British colonialists. Why did indirect rule fail in the Eastern part of Nigeria?
**Q8.** Write short notes on any three of the following:
(I) Socialism (II) Capitalism (III) Communism (IV) Fascism (V) Anarchism
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**GOV 001 — Elements of Government**
**Q1(a).** What is Political Socialization? [3 marks]
**Q1(b).** Outline and explain three agents of political socialization. [12 marks]
**Q2(a).** Explain Parliamentary system of government. [3 marks]
**Q2(b).** Discuss four differences between Parliamentary and Presidential systems of government. [12 marks]
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**GOV 002 — Fundamentals of Government**
**Q3(a).** What is a coup d'état? [3 marks]
**Q3(b).** Advance four reasons why a coup d'état is said to be an aberration. [12 marks]
**Q4.** The low productivity and inefficiency of public corporations in Nigeria are a result of many challenges. Discuss any five of these challenges. [15 marks]
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**GOV 003 — Nigerian Government and Politics**
**Q5(a).** Define the policy of Indirect Rule. [3 marks]
**Q5(b).** List and discuss four defects of the policy on British colonies. [12 marks]
**Q6.** Discuss elaborately five achievements of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) in Nigeria's First Republic. [15 marks]
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**GOV 004 — African Government and Politics**
**Q7.** Explain any five effects of colonialism on African societies. [15 marks]
**Q8(a).** What is Military Rule? [3 marks]
**Q8(b).** Discuss three characteristics of military regimes. [12 marks]
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## COMPLETE ANSWERS
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### ESSAY SECTION (General)
**Q1 — Five Basic Functions of a Modern Government**
A modern government performs the following core functions:
**i. Maintenance of Law and Order:** Government enacts and enforces laws through the police, courts, and prisons to protect citizens from crime and ensure peaceful coexistence in society.
**ii. Protection of Lives and Property:** Through the military and security agencies, government defends citizens from external aggression and internal threats, safeguarding both human lives and personal property.
**iii. Provision of Social Services:** Government constructs and maintains roads, schools, hospitals, and public utilities, raising the general standard of living for its citizens.
**iv. Economic Regulation:** Government regulates trade, banking, industry, and commerce to ensure a stable and just economy, protect consumers, curb monopoly, and promote fair competition.
**v. Promotion of Social Welfare:** Government implements social welfare schemes — such as unemployment benefits, pension programs, and poverty alleviation initiatives — to care for the poor, elderly, disabled, and other vulnerable groups.
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**Q2 — Five Features of the Arthur Richards Constitution of 1946**
**i. Introduction of Regionalism:** The constitution divided Nigeria into three regions — North, West, and East — each with its own regional council, laying the foundation for Nigeria's later federal structure.
**ii. Establishment of a Central Legislative Council:** A central legislature was created to deliberate on matters affecting the whole country, though official (colonial) members still constituted the majority.
**iii. Limited African Representation:** While Africans were included in the legislative bodies, their representation was largely indirect and minimal, meaning Nigerians had little real influence over decision-making.
**iv. Retention of Executive Power by the Governor:** The Governor-General retained overwhelming executive authority, making the system fundamentally undemocratic despite its legislative concessions.
**v. Absence of True Federalism:** Though regional councils were introduced, the central government retained dominant control, and the regions lacked genuine autonomy or legislative independence.
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**Q3 — Nigeria's Foreign Policy Objectives and Ways to Realize Them**
**Main Objectives:**
- Promotion and protection of Nigeria's national interest
- Promotion of African unity, solidarity, and liberation from colonialism
- Promotion of international peace, security, and cooperation
- Respect for international law and the peaceful settlement of disputes
- Economic diplomacy and development cooperation
**Four Ways to Realize These Objectives:**
**i. Active Participation in International Organizations:** Nigeria should strengthen its engagement with the United Nations, African Union, ECOWAS, and other multilateral bodies to advance its interests and contribute to global peace.
**ii. Economic Diplomacy:** Nigeria should pursue bilateral and multilateral trade agreements, attract foreign direct investment, and leverage its economic size to build strategic partnerships.
**iii. Peacekeeping Contributions:** Continued deployment of troops and resources to regional peacekeeping operations (as demonstrated through ECOMOG) reinforces Nigeria's commitment to African peace and security.
**iv. Bilateral and Multilateral Treaties:** Nigeria should actively negotiate and honour treaties covering trade, security, education, and technology to deepen ties with other nations and project its interests diplomatically.
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**Q4 — What is a Political Party? Five Functions**
A **political party** is an organised group of people who share common political beliefs, ideologies, and goals, and who come together to contest elections with the aim of gaining political power and implementing their policies through government.
**Five Functions of a Political Party:**
**i. Political Recruitment:** Parties identify, train, and present suitable candidates for public office — from councillors to presidents — thereby providing leadership for governance.
**ii. Political Socialisation:** Parties educate the public about political issues, government policies, and civic responsibilities, raising political awareness across society.
**iii. Mobilisation of the Masses:** Parties organise citizens for political participation, including voting, campaigning, and community engagement, thereby strengthening democracy.
**iv. Formulation of Policies:** Parties develop manifestos and policy programmes that, when they win elections, guide governance and national development.
**v. Aggregation of Interests:** Parties bring together the diverse demands and interests of different groups in society and channel them into coherent policy proposals that government can act upon.
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**Q5 — Differences Between Constitution and Constitutionalism**
| Basis | Constitution | Constitutionalism |
|---|---|---|
| **Definition** | A body of fundamental rules and principles that establish the structure, powers, and limitations of government | The principle or doctrine that government must be conducted according to the constitution and that authority must be limited by law |
| **Nature** | A written or unwritten legal document | A political doctrine or philosophy |
| **Focus** | Outlines institutions, rights, and procedures | Emphasises restraint, accountability, and respect for constitutional limits |
| **Existence** | Every state has a constitution of some form | Not every state practises constitutionalism, even with a constitution |
| **Example** | Nigeria's 1999 Constitution | A government that respects separation of powers, rule of law, and fundamental rights practises constitutionalism |
In essence, a constitution is the **instrument**, while constitutionalism is the **spirit and practice** of governing within its limits.
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**Q6 — Five Basic Functions of the Executive Arm of Government**
**i. Policy Formulation and Implementation:** The executive initiates government policies and programmes and is responsible for their execution through ministries, departments, and agencies.
**ii. Maintenance of Law and Order:** Through the police, armed forces, and security services, the executive enforces laws, protects citizens, and maintains internal security.
**iii. Appointment of Key Officials:** The executive appoints ministers, ambassadors, judges (subject to legislative confirmation in some systems), and other senior government officials.
**iv. Conduct of Foreign Affairs:** The executive manages diplomatic relations, negotiates treaties, and represents the state in international affairs.
**v. Preparation and Execution of the Budget:** The executive prepares the national budget, proposes it to the legislature for approval, and oversees the revenue collection and expenditure of public funds.
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**Q7 — Indirect Rule in Nigeria: Reasons for Introduction and Failure in the East**
**Reasons for the Introduction of Indirect Rule:**
**i. Cost Efficiency:** Direct administration would have required enormous financial resources. Using existing traditional rulers was far cheaper and more economical for the British colonial government.
**ii. Shortage of British Personnel:** Britain lacked sufficient trained administrators to govern the vast Nigerian territory directly, making reliance on local rulers a practical necessity.
**iii. Existence of Established Traditional Institutions:** Particularly in Northern Nigeria, there were already well-organised emirate systems under powerful emirs, making the use of existing structures straightforward and effective.
**iv. Superior Local Knowledge:** Traditional rulers understood the customs, languages, and social structures of their people better than any British official could, enabling more effective administration at the grassroots level.
**v. Reduction of Resistance:** Governing through recognised local leaders helped minimise outright opposition and revolt, since people were more likely to accept instructions from their own rulers than from foreign officials.
**Why Indirect Rule Failed in Eastern Nigeria:**
**i. Absence of Centralised Authority:** The Igbo and other Eastern peoples were largely organised in segmentary, acephalous (leaderless) societies — there were no paramount chiefs or centralised rulers equivalent to the Northern emirs whose authority could be harnessed.
**ii. The Warrant Chief Problem:** The British created "Warrant Chiefs" — individuals who had no traditional mandate to rule — and imposed them on communities. This was deeply resented and seen as illegitimate by the people.
**iii. Democratic and Egalitarian Culture:** Eastern Nigerian societies, especially the Igbo, operated through age grades, village assemblies, and consensus decision-making. There was strong cultural resistance to the idea of a single individual exercising authority over an entire community.
**iv. The Aba Women's Riots of 1929:** The imposition of warrant chiefs and the perceived threat of taxation led to the famous Aba Women's Riots, which exposed the total collapse of the indirect rule system in the East and forced Britain to reconsider its approach.
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**Q8 — Short Notes on Political Ideologies**
**I. Socialism**
Socialism is an economic and political ideology that advocates collective or state ownership and control of the means of production, distribution, and exchange. It seeks to reduce economic inequality by ensuring equitable distribution of wealth and universal access to services such as healthcare, education, and housing. Unlike communism, socialism may coexist with democratic institutions and limited private ownership.
**II. Capitalism**
Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of production — factories, land, and resources — are privately owned and operated for profit. It is characterised by free markets, competition, individual enterprise, and the price mechanism as the primary regulator of economic activity. The state's role is minimal, with market forces determining the allocation of goods and services.
**III. Communism**
Communism, as theorised by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, envisions a classless, stateless society in which all property is communally owned and individuals contribute according to their abilities while receiving according to their needs. It seeks the total abolition of private ownership of the means of production and the elimination of class distinctions through a revolutionary process.
**IV. Fascism**
Fascism is a far-right, authoritarian, and ultranationalist ideology that emerged in early 20th-century Europe. It is characterised by dictatorial leadership, centralised state power, suppression of political opposition, glorification of the nation or race, and aggressive foreign policy. Fascist regimes, such as those of Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany, prioritised state supremacy over individual rights and democratic governance.
**V. Anarchism**
Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates the abolition of all involuntary, coercive forms of authority — particularly the state and government. Anarchists believe that human beings are capable of organising themselves voluntarily and cooperatively without hierarchical institutions. It promotes individual liberty, mutual aid, and self-management as the basis of social organisation.
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### GOV 001 — Elements of Government
**Q1(a) — Political Socialisation**
Political socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals acquire political knowledge, values, beliefs, attitudes, and orientations. It shapes how people perceive government, understand their civic roles, and participate in political life. It begins in childhood and continues through adulthood via various socialising agents.
**Q1(b) — Three Agents of Political Socialisation**
**i. The Family:** The family is the earliest and most influential agent of political socialisation. From childhood, parents consciously or unconsciously transmit their political opinions, party loyalties, and attitudes toward authority to their children through daily interactions, conversations, and observed behaviour.
**ii. Schools and Educational Institutions:** Schools formally impart political knowledge through subjects such as civic education, government, and history. Beyond the curriculum, schools instil national values, promote respect for democratic institutions, teach civic duties, and expose students to symbols of nationhood such as anthems and pledges.
**iii. Mass Media:** Television, radio, newspapers, and social media platforms expose citizens to political news, electoral campaigns, policy debates, and governmental activities. The media shapes public opinion, raises political awareness, and can either reinforce or challenge existing political attitudes and values.
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**Q2(a) — Parliamentary System of Government**
A parliamentary system is a form of democratic government in which the executive branch derives its authority and legitimacy from the legislature (parliament) and remains accountable to it. The head of government — typically a Prime Minister — is drawn from the majority party in parliament and can be removed through a vote of no confidence. The United Kingdom is the classic example.
**Q2(b) — Four Differences Between Parliamentary and Presidential Systems**
**i. Relationship Between Executive and Legislature:** In a parliamentary system, the executive is fused with the legislature — the Prime Minister and cabinet are members of parliament and depend on its confidence to remain in power. In a presidential system, there is strict separation of powers; the president is independently elected and cannot be removed by the legislature except through impeachment.
**ii. Head of State vs Head of Government:** Parliamentary systems typically separate these roles — a monarch or ceremonial president serves as head of state, while the Prime Minister is head of government. In a presidential system, the president combines both roles in one person.
**iii. Tenure of Office:** The Prime Minister's tenure in a parliamentary system is not fixed — a vote of no confidence by parliament can remove the government at any time. In a presidential system, the president serves a constitutionally fixed term and cannot ordinarily be removed except for serious constitutional violations.
**iv. Nature of Decision-Making:** In a parliamentary system, decision-making is largely collective and cabinet-based, with the Prime Minister as "first among equals." In a presidential system, the president wields significant individual executive authority and is not bound by cabinet consensus in the same manner.
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### GOV 002 — Fundamentals of Government
**Q3(a) — Coup d'état**
A coup d'état is the sudden, illegal, and forceful seizure of state power, typically carried out by the military or a small organised group, resulting in the overthrow of a legitimately constituted government. It bypasses democratic and constitutional processes in the transfer of political power.
**Q3(b) — Four Reasons Why a Coup d'état is an Aberration**
**i. It is Fundamentally Undemocratic:** A coup completely circumvents the will of the people. Power is seized by force rather than through free and fair elections, negating the democratic principle of popular sovereignty.
**ii. It Violates the Constitution and Rule of Law:** Every coup d'état involves the forceful suspension or abrogation of the constitution — the supreme law of the land. This destroys constitutional order and the rule of law upon which legitimate governance is founded.
**iii. It Generates Political Instability:** Military takeovers often plunge nations into prolonged periods of uncertainty, insecurity, and conflict. Counter-coups, factional fighting within the military, and civil unrest frequently follow, destabilising the state.
**iv. It Leads to Authoritarianism and Human Rights Violations:** Military regimes typically rule by decree, suppress political opposition, restrict press freedom, and curtail civil liberties. The absence of democratic checks and balances creates conditions for abuse of power and widespread human rights violations.
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**Q4 — Five Challenges of Public Corporations in Nigeria**
**i. Political Interference:** Government officials and politicians frequently interfere in the day-to-day management of public corporations, appointing unqualified loyalists, overriding professional decisions, and diverting resources for political purposes, leading to chronic mismanagement.
**ii. Corruption and Misappropriation of Funds:** Public corporations are susceptible to embezzlement, contract inflation, and diversion of revenues by both management and political appointees. This drains resources and prevents productive investment.
**iii. Inadequate Funding:** Many public corporations are chronically underfunded by government. Insufficient capital allocation means infrastructure deteriorates, equipment is not replaced, and services cannot be delivered effectively.
**iv. Bureaucratic Bottlenecks:** Excessive red tape, slow procurement processes, and rigid civil service procedures delay project execution, frustrate initiative, and reduce overall organisational efficiency.
**v. Shortage of Skilled and Qualified Manpower:** Appointments in public corporations are often politically motivated rather than merit-based, resulting in a workforce that lacks the technical expertise and professional competence needed to manage complex organisations productively.
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### GOV 003 — Nigerian Government and Politics
**Q5(a) — Indirect Rule**
Indirect rule was the colonial administrative policy adopted by the British in Nigeria, whereby they governed the colonised population through existing traditional rulers and indigenous institutions rather than through direct British administration. The colonial government set broad policy, while traditional rulers implemented it at the local level under British supervision.
**Q5(b) — Four Defects of Indirect Rule**
**i. Abuse of Power by Traditional Rulers:** The system concentrated enormous authority in the hands of traditional rulers, some of whom exploited this power to oppress their subjects, collect excessive taxes, and govern tyrannically without accountability.
**ii. Promotion of Ethnic Division:** By elevating certain traditional rulers and ethnic groups over others, indirect rule deepened inter-ethnic suspicions, rivalries, and resentments — divisions that persisted well into post-independence Nigeria.
**iii. Resistance to Modernisation:** Traditional rulers who benefited from the existing order were generally hostile to social, educational, and economic changes that might undermine their authority, thereby retarding development in their areas.
**iv. Failure to Build a Unified National Administration:** Because governance was fragmented into numerous local units under different traditional authorities, indirect rule made it extremely difficult to develop a coherent, unified national administrative structure, complicating the eventual task of nation-building.
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**Q6 — Five Achievements of the NCNC in Nigeria's First Republic**
The **National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC)**, founded by Herbert Macaulay and later led by Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe, made the following significant contributions:
**i. Promotion of Nigerian Nationalism and Unity:** The NCNC was one of the earliest political organisations to advocate for a unified Nigerian nation cutting across ethnic and regional lines, promoting pan-Nigerian consciousness at a time of deep ethnic divisions.
**ii. Active Role in Constitutional Development:** The NCNC participated vigorously in constitutional conferences — including those leading to the Macpherson Constitution (1951) and the independence constitution — helping to shape Nigeria's path to self-governance and independence in 1960.
**iii. Advancement of Education:** The party championed increased access to education for Nigerians, advocating for the establishment of schools and scholarships, and linking educational opportunity to national development and self-determination.
**iv. Political Mobilisation and Mass Participation:** The NCNC was instrumental in mobilising ordinary Nigerians — particularly in the East and among urban workers — to engage in the political process, thereby widening democratic participation and political consciousness.
**v. Advocacy for Economic Development:** The NCNC pushed for policies that promoted trade, commerce, and economic empowerment for Nigerians, challenging colonial economic structures that kept Africans in subordinate economic positions.
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### GOV 004 — African Government and Politics
**Q7 — Five Effects of Colonialism on African Societies**
**i. Economic Exploitation and Underdevelopment:** Colonial powers systematically extracted Africa's natural resources — minerals, agricultural products, and raw materials — and channelled them to metropolitan economies. African economies were restructured to serve colonial interests, creating dependency and stunting indigenous industrial and economic development.
**ii. Destruction of Traditional Cultures and Values:** Colonialism imposed European languages, religions, legal systems, and social values, undermining and delegitimising African cultural practices, belief systems, and traditional institutions. This created a cultural crisis of identity that many African societies continue to navigate.
**iii. Arbitrary Territorial Boundaries:** European powers at the Berlin Conference (1884–85) drew colonial boundaries with no regard for existing ethnic, linguistic, or cultural groupings. This split many ethnic nationalities across different colonial territories, sowing seeds of irredentism, ethnic conflict, and border disputes that plague Africa to this day.
**iv. Introduction of New Governance and Legal Systems:** Colonial administrations replaced traditional governance structures with European legal, judicial, and administrative systems. While this introduced concepts such as written constitutions and formal bureaucracies, it also destroyed indigenous systems of self-governance and created institutions that often lacked legitimacy among the governed.
**v. Urbanisation and Social Disruption:** Colonial economic policies — including the development of mines, plantations, and trade centres — drove massive rural-to-urban migration, disrupting traditional community structures, family systems, and land tenure arrangements, and creating new social classes and urban inequalities.
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**Q8(a) — Military Rule**
Military rule is a system of government in which the armed forces seize political power — usually through a coup d'état — and assume control of the state, typically suspending the constitution, dissolving democratic institutions, and governing by decree rather than through representative processes.
**Q8(b) — Three Characteristics of Military Regimes**
**i. Concentration and Centralisation of Power:** In military regimes, political authority is concentrated in the hands of a small group of military officers — often a Supreme Military Council or a junta. There is little or no civilian participation in governance, and decision-making is top-down with no meaningful checks and balances.
**ii. Suppression of Political Opposition and Civil Liberties:** Military governments routinely ban political parties, suspend constitutions, muzzle the press, detain political opponents without trial, and restrict freedoms of speech, assembly, and association. Dissent is treated as a threat to national security.
**iii. Rule by Decree and Absence of the Rule of Law:** Rather than governing through constitutionally enacted legislation, military regimes issue decrees and edicts that have the force of law but are not subject to legislative scrutiny or judicial review. This creates an environment where the rule of law is replaced by the arbitrary will of the military leadership.